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Disagreement is a complex speech act, closely related to concepts such as conflicts (Gruber, 1998; Edstrom, 2004; Sifianou, 2012;), oppositional talk (Bardovi-Harlig & Salsbury, 2004), reproaches (Tainio, 2011), oppositions (Kakavá, 2002; Angouri & Locher, 2012), antagonism (Tannen, 2002), and arguments or disputes (Muntigl & Turnbull, 1998; Georgakopoulou, 2001). A basic definition can be drawn from Rees-Miller’s study, where disagreement is said to be produced when a speaker considers untrue some Proposition P uttered or presumed to be espoused by an Addressee A and reacts with an utterance the propositional content or implicature of which is not P (Rees-Miller, 2000). By perceiving disagreement as an utterance, Rees-Miller’s definition appears to include only those instances where differing opinions are expressed verbally. A broader definition, however, recognizes that disagreement may be expressed both verbally and nonverbally, through gaze, facial expressions, head moves, smiles or laughter, and gestures (Bousmalis, 2013) as well as through silence (Pomerantz,1975). Kakavá’s definition, for example, captures this wider view in characterizing disagreement as an oppositional stance or reaction—either verbal or nonverbal—that “involves the negation of a stated or implied proposition” (Kakavá, 2002).

2.2 Previous Studies of Disagreement

2.2.1 Previous Studies of Disagreement Under

Different Theories Disagreement is a common topic of interest in academic research, particularly in pragmatics. The speech act theory (Austin, 1962) and the politeness theory (Brown & Levinson, 1987) have been the main focus of research on disagreement.

Between the 1980s and 2010s, Grainger (2001) categorized the evolution of politeness theory into three distinct phases: Gricean approaches to politeness, discursive approaches, and interactional approaches. The Gricean approaches to politeness, also referred to as classic approaches, are based on Grice’s account of meaning (Culpeper & Terkourafi, 2017). The prevalent theories in this phase include Leech’s politeness principle (1983) and Brown and Levinson’s politeness theory, also known as face theory (1987).

Politeness theory focuses on the study of disagreement strategies while minimizing the face-threatening, as well as the various factors that influence the choice of such strategies (Angouri, 2012; Hamdan & Mahadin, 2021; Marra, 2012; Rees-Miller, 2000). Some researchers have examined disagreement strategies through politeness, whereas others have examined disagreement from the perspective of directness. According to Georgakopoulou (2001), indirect forms of disagreement are not necessarily motivated by etiquette concerns.

Chapter 3 Theoretical Foundation ............................. 17

3.1 Multimodal Pragmatics ................................... 17

3.1.1 Multimodality ............................... 17

3.1.2 Multimodal Pragmatics and Disagreement ................... 18

Chapter 4 Methodology ........................ 22

4.1 Research Questions ............................... 22

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