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摘要：The building industry and the civil engineering industry together are often referred to as the construction industry, and many firms operate in both sectors, even though their staff and organizations may be largely separate.

will actually be required in the project or not. (Ivor, H. S 1999)
Concrete Foundations
Concrete particulars are to include the kind and quality of materials, mix details, tests of materials and finished work, methods of compaction and curing and other requirements, but much of this information may be included in preamble clauses or cross references to project specification clauses. Concrete poured on or against earth or unblended hardcore shall be so described. Concrete foundations include attached column bases, isolated pile caps and machine bases. Beds include blinding beds, plinths and thickening of beds. (Ivor, H. S 1999)
If the concrete foundations are reinforced with fabric reinforcement, the reinforcement is measured net in m² stating the mesh reference, weight per m², minimum laps and strip width, where placed in one width. (Ivor, H. S 1999)

4.2 External works

This chapter is concerned with the measurement of roads, drives, paths, grassed areas, planting of trees, shrubs and hedges, and fencing and gates. Demolition work is considered to be outside the scope of this book and has accordingly been omitted, but is included in Advanced Building Measurement.

In general, the sub-base or foundation for the road or footpath and the surfacing are each measured separately with a full description. (Ivor, H. S 1999)

4.3 Landscaping

4.4 Costs of mechanical and electrical work
Lighting and heating installations can be judged in terms of the adequacy of the internal environment to which they contribute.

The mechanical work is generally subcontracted out to mechanical specialties, which prepare detailed estimates for plumbing and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system (HVAC). From the general contractor’s point of view, this simply transfers the preparation of the detailed estimate to another party, but it does not eliminate the need for estimating and analyzing the prices quoted. To accurately estimate plumbing costs, general contractors therefore should have field experience and a good knowledge of various plumbing systems, materials, labor, and equipment, as well as understanding of the drawing and specifications. (Calin, M 2003)
Typically, costs of plumbing and sewage systems can be estimated in two ways: as a percentage of the total cost of a project, or as the grand total of the cost for the installation of required materials. Plumbing estimates as a percentage of the total job will range from 3 to 12% depending upon the number and type of fixtures required. However, in general, buildings that require a low percentage ranging from 3 to 7% include assembly, warehouses, banks, office buildings, shops, stores, and industrial buildings, where plumbing can be easily installed. On the other hand, buildings that require a high percentage ranging from 8 to 12% include nursing homes, hotels, hospitals, high-rise buildings, and studio apartments. The nursing homes, hotels, and hospitals generally require plumbing spread out over a large area, whereas high-rise buildings and studio apartments require extensive installations of plumbing in relatively small living areas. This percentage method is common for general plumbing estimates, whereas special items and conditions should be of interest to the subcontractor only. (Calin, M 2003)

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