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and the church. The lower class, influenced by the priests and the benefactions given by the church, was utterly ignorant about public opinion. The emperor was also indifferent to the notion of public opinion. For this reason, it was difficult for the lower class to form public opinion about the state. 

Chapter Two The Rise of Public Opinion in 19th-Century England

2.1 The Development of Individualism

The rise of public opinion has a strong connection with the awareness of individualism. In the 19th century, individualism was influenced by many factors such as the rise of bourgeoisie and capitalism, the renaissance, Protestantism, the philosophy of the Enlightenment, and Romanticism (Swart, 1962: 77). The end of feudalism meant that the time in which the accumulation of wealth and social status were based on birth was annulled. The emerging bourgeoisie sought to change the social system with a new ideology that helped them to increase wealth and improve status. At the end of the 18th century and the early 19th century, individualism which emphasized the dignity and rights of ordinary persons came forth. It highlighted the social, political and economic centrality of individual persons instead of monarchy, state, or church. 

In general terms, individualism was used to designate at least three main ideas: the ideal doctrine with equalitarian meanings of the rights of ordinary person, the doctrine of laissez-faire, and the cult of Romantic individualism. Firstly, the political meaning of individualism was mainly the result of the French Revolution (Swart, 1962: 78). The democratic idea spread among the European countries, which inspired people to pay attention to their own rights. Secondly, from the view of economy, the economic theory of laissez-faire which was raised by Adam Smith (1723-1790) influenced the development of individualism. Smith was a classical political economist who advocated that the pursuit of individual interest was human nature. The interest of the whole society consists of individual’s interest. According to him, the desire for profits was the normal ethic (qtd. in Qian, 2016: 5). The selfish motive became the sublime purpose for benefiting the society. 

2.2 The Implementation of Reform

The development of public opinion is closely linked with the democratization of the government. The nineteenth century was a time of frequent changes. The public adapted to the change which was brought by the reform. The social change became a climate. In the first half of the 19th century, several movements took place as a result of people’s growing enthusiasm for democratic reform. Parliamentary reform could not be ignored in the 19th century. The bourgeoisie grew up, and gradually grasped the economic lifeline. They demanded the change of monopoly of aristocracy in the parliament. Meanwhile, the working class thrived. They also demanded their equal rights and justice. 

The first parliamentary reform occurred in 1832. The Great Reform Act of 1832 further widened the scope of democratization and encouraged people’s participation in public affairs. The factors that influenced the movement were related to the social development. Economically speaking, the industrial revolution that sprang up in the 18th century not only increased the productivity of England but also led to populati本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。