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is influenced by ethnic heritage (Hawrysh and Zaichkowsky, 1989), and the attitudes and customs which are embedded in his/her culture (Shenkar and Ronen, 1987). Individuals having the same cultural backgrounds tend to display common patterns of thinking, feeling and reacting in line with their cultural heritage. As a result, behaviour in negotiation is consistent within cultures and each culture has its own distinctive negotiation “style”. The intra-cultural literature which examines sellers and buyers from the same cultures, provides evidence for this consistency (e.g. French (Dupont, 1982); Mexicans (Fisher, 1980); Brazilians (Graham, 1983, 1985a); Middle Eastern Arabs (Muna, 1973; Wright, 1983); Chinese (Graham and Lin, 1987; Pye, 1982; Shenkar and Ronen, 1987; Tung 1984) and Japanese (Graham, 1984; Tung, 1984; Van Zandt, 1970)). Despite the rather rich literature pertaining to intra-cultural negotiation behaviours, there is little attention paid to inter-cultural or cross-cultural negotiation behaviour (Adler and Graham, 1989; Mintu and Calantone, 1991).

 

International sales negotiations that occur across national boundaries are crosscultural (Adler, 1986), and a negotiation is cross-cultural “when the parties involved belong to different cultures and therefore do not share the same ways of thinking, feeling and behaving” (Casse, 1981, p. 152). Such cultural differences prevalent in cross-cultural negotiations can affect the process and its outcome (Hamner, 1980; Tse et al., 1988). Studies attempting a comparison of the various negotiation behaviours in different countries (Adler, 1986; Adler et al., 1987; Burt, 1989; Cambell et al., 1988; Copeland and Griggs, 1985; Foster, 1992; Graham et al., 1988; Harnett and Cummings, 1980; Hellweg et al., 1991; Herbig and Kramer, 1992; Weiss and Stripp, 1985) have mainly adopted an intra-cultural perspective and demonstrated that negotiation behaviours differ between cultures.

 

Furthermore, a study by Druckman et al. (1976) which attempted to isolate differences which could be attributed to culture only but not variables such as age and sex, indicated that negotiator behaviour differs between cultures. The ability to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes from cross-cultural sales negotiations is believed to be crucial to sales success internationally (Cohen, 1980; Fisher and Ury, 1981; Llich, 1980; Nierenberg, 1963; Raiffa, 1982; Unterman, 1983; Warschaw, 1980). Negotiation outcome is the point in the process when the parties reach some form of agreement on the total set of issues that have been discussed (Dommermuth, 1976). Negotiation outcome can be measured in terms of sale versus no sale (Pennington, 1968) or profits (Dwyer and Walker, 1981; Lewis and F ry, 1977; Pruitt and Lewis, 1975) and satisfaction (Dwyer and Walker, 1981). The latter have been found to be operationally superior to the former (Graham, 1985b, 1985c).

 

Different cultures affect how individuals will behave in international negotiations. One's own assumptions appear to be normal and realistic, because they are familiar and unquestioned when negotiating domestically (Kimmel, 1994). Therefore, to some e本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。