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Along with understanding how individuals use metaphors or frame situations, some argue that these constructs can be used to view organizational events from a variety of perspectives. Cognitive theories of leadership emphasize the leader's need to view events and situations from multiple frames. Pondy and Huff (1988) suggest that change interventions typically flounder because they are improperly framed by the management. Bolmon and Deal (1984, 1991a, 1997, 2003, 2008), drawing on cognitive theories of leadership, argue that ability to use multiple frames of reference is essential to leadership effectiveness.

Bolman and Deal Model

Bolman and Deal view leadership from a cognitive perspective and argue that organizational activities and events can be viewed from multiple perspectives. Acknowledging that every leader brings a particular world view of his/her role, Bolman and Deal collapse the inevitable multiplicity of possible perspectives into four frames: structural, human resource, political and symbolic.

Bolman and Deal suggest these four ways of thinking might act as frames through which to view action. Each frame provides a different picture of the action. Trying to understand organizational action through only one frame limits our understanding, yet that is what generally happens ( Bolmann & Deal, 2003). Bolmann and Deal contend that we often single mindedly analyse a problem or situation in the work place from only one perspective when the problem or the situation is complex and should be analysed through more than one perspective:

Each of theses frames has its own vision or image of reality. Only when managers, consultants and policy makers can look through all four are they likely to appreciate the depth and complexity of organizational life. Galileo discovered this when he devised the first telescope. Each lens that he added contributed to a more accurate image of the heavens. Successful managers take advantage of the same truth. They frame and reframe until they understand the situation at hand (Bolman and Deal, 2003). Table 1 provides a basic overview of the Four Frame Model.

The implications of the differences in perspectives can be seen in the ways people form different perspectives view common organizational processes and events. For example, from a structural frame orientation, planning is primarily a goal and objective setting activity. From the human resource frame, planning is an activity bringing people together, fostering participation. From the political perspective, planning sets the stage for conflict and power realignment. From the symbolic frame, planning is a ritual signalling responsibility which yields symbols and rituals. (Bolman and Deal, 2008). Bolman and Deal assert that communication, meetings, decision making, evaluating and reorganizing are all activities or processes subject to different interpretations based on frame.

Structural Frame

Theorist using this frame view organizations as goal seeking entities. Similar to Morgan's machine metaphor, rules, policies本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。