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ious positions of authority. Leadership is a much more dynamic process where leaders accumulate power, which is mediated by a variety of factors such as followers' expectations and authority acceptance. The leader-follower relationship, which is central to social exchange theory, is also a key element in understanding another power and influence theory: transactional leadership. This Transactional leadership assists followers in meeting their needs.

Another power and influence theory that extended the ideas of transactional leadership is transformational leadership. Transformational leadership emerged in the 1980s as a way to describe the ways in which leaders may significantly influence culture and commitment. Burns (1978); Hoy and Miskel (1996) contend that transformation leadership can transform an organization by increasing performance, fostering dedication, and altering personal values and beliefs. Followers share the leader's vision, and are both empowered and self motivated.

However, the power and influence theories haven't considered the effects of context on leadership, and also have ignored the process by which influence is managed. Charismatic and transformational theories continue to be hindered by various problems, including concepts that are difficult to operationalize, causal paths that remain unclear, and the need to assess the impact of these leadership approaches under varying situations or conditions (Bryman, 1993; Yukl, 1999).

Cognitive Theory

Cognitive theories emphasize the implicit understanding of processes and events. Individual perceptions and the way in which information is processed and organized become critical. From the perspective this approach, the participants in terms of their understanding of meanings perceive leadership in organizational occurrences (Markus & Zajonc, 1985). Each person involved in the leadership process is considered to have his or her own implicit theory of leadership in that particular situation (Turley, 2002) expressed in frames, lenses, metaphors, cognitive maps and schema (Marcus & Zajonc, 1985).

From the leader's perspective the schemas or frames determine how incoming information about a situation and the people involved will be organized and interpreted. Responses and decisions are always limited by the type and amount of information that becomes accessible to the leader through cognitive filters. Some researchers have argued that attending to the metaphors used within an organization, will provide leaders with a better understanding of employee behavior and response. Palmer and Lundberg (1995) assert that metaphors can be used as diagnosing tools in organizations.

Cognitive models propose that people with low cognitive complexity tend to see things in black and white, whereas those with high cognitive complexity are able to discriminate many shades of gray, identify complex patterns of relationships, and predict future events from current trends (Turley, 2002; Yukl, 1994). A high degree of cognitive complexity tends to help leaders conform to prototypical models of what followers expect leaders to be, and understand critical factors and the rel本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。