e causally related to superior job performance. This understanding of competence has been described as attribute-based inference of competence (Heywood, Gonczi et al., 1992). Alternatively, performance-based approach to competence can be inferred from demonstrated performance at pre-defined acceptable standards in the workplace (Gonczi, Hager et al., 1993).
The PMI's definition of 'competency' adopted from Parry's (1998) work is 'a cluster of related knowledge, attitudes, skills, and other personal characteristics that affects a major part of one's job, correlates with performance on the job, can be measured against well-accepted standards, can be improved via training and development and can be broken down into dimensions of competencies'. The major components of competencies include: abilities, attitudes, behaviour, knowledge, personality and skills.
The PMI's definition of 'personal competency' adopted from Finn (1993) and Crawford (1997) is 'the core personality characteristics underlying a person's capability to do a project. These are behaviour, motives, traits, attitudes, and self concepts that enable a person to successfully manage a project'.
The personal competencies from PMI presented here are those considered to best represent the personal characteristics required of a competent project manager in any type of project. They were derived from the Competency Dictionary (Spencer Model) developed by Lyle and Signe Spencer (1993) and adapted to fit the technical need of the PMCD framework. The six competence units are:
Achievement and action: This competency consists of achievement orientation; concern for order in quality and accuracy; initiative and information seeking.
Helping and human service: This competency implies that the manager has customer service orientation and interpersonal understanding.
Impact and influence: This competency comprises impact and influence capability; organisation awareness and relationship building.
Managerial competency: This competency includes teamwork and cooperative; capability in developing others; team leadership and directiveness, assertiveness and positional power using.
Cognitive: This competency implies that the manager has both analytical thinking capability and conceptual thinking ability.
Personal effectiveness: This competency covers self-control; self-confidence; flexibility and organisational commitment.
who encourages subordinates to put in extra effort and to go beyond what they (subordinates) expected before. The subordinates of transformational leaders feel trust, admire, loyal and respect towards leaders and are motivated to perform extra-role behaviours (Bass, 1985; Katz and Kahn, 1978; Bass and Avolio, 1993; Conger et al., 2000). Howell and Frost (1989), Clover (1990), Deluga (1992), Kirkpatrick and Locke (1996), Barling et al. (1996) asserted that transformational leadership styles affect higher task performance. While Hater and Bass (1998), Howell and Frost (1989) and Conger et al. (2000) claimed that transformational leadership behaviours are associated with subordinates' satisfaction.
Transformational leaders achieve the greatest performance from subordinates since they are able to inspire their subordinates to raise their capabilities towards success and develop subordinates' innovative problem- solving skills (Bass, 1985; Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Jung et al. (2003) found significant relation
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