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According to Nielsen, in 1999 an average home watched television for 7 hours and 24 minutes per day. The Arbitron Company measures radio audiences in more than 260 metro markets by collecting more than 1 million diaries to compile estimates of listening behavior. Research indicated that in 1999 a U.S. adult spent an average of 2 hours and 48 minutes daily listening to radio. Readership in print media is measured by surveys or estimated by circulation. The Audit Bureau of Circulations provides data on more than 1,500 daily and weekly newspapers and 1,000 periodicals in the U.S. and Canada. In addition, Mediamark Research, Inc. and Simmons Market Research Bureau use what is called a "recent reading method" for measuring magazine readership. A sample of respondents is shown individual cards with magazine logotypes and asked if they have read the magazines within the past month and where they did so. 

Demographics and product usage also are collected from the respondents to generate an audience profile for each magazine. A similar method, asking what was read the day before, is sometimes used to measure the readership of a newspaper. On average, 1.88 or more people read a single copy of a newspaper in 2000. Billboard advertising audiences are measured through driver surveys. A sample of drivers is asked about the routes traveled as shown on a map, and a transparent overlay is then placed on the top of each driver's map to reveal billboard structures that were passed. The number of passengers in a vehicle is estimated by a vehicle load factor, 1.35 adults per vehicle.

Internet audiences are often measured through surveys and tracking. There are two common tracking methods-Web-centric and user-centric. The Web-centric method uses log files on a Web server to calculate the number of people who have visited the site. This method tends to underestimate the actual number of visitors because of a network practice called "caching," by which Internet service providers store copies of popular Web pages on their own servers for quick access. The user-centric method requires the installation of proprietary metering software on a computer in a sample household or office. The software automatically tracks the computer usage and Web sites that are visited on a continuous basis. The information is combined with the user's demographics to generate audience profiles for various Web sites. Telephone surveys also are used to assess the number of Internet users. For instance, a survey conducted in 2001 by the UCLA Center for Communication Policy found that 72.3 percent of Americans had online access, up from 66.9 percent in 2000.

Principles:

Advertising rates are more stable for print media than broadcast media largely because print media can adjust the number of advertising pages on an issue-to-issue basis while broadcast media have a fixed amount of daily programming hours. Thus, demand by advertisers has a stronger impact on the rates for broadcast time. Newspaper space is usually sold according to rate cards; buyers of large volumes get discounted rates. Magazine space is sold similarly. Advertising rates for radio and television are normally determined through negotiation and often vary by the time of day. 

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