about the current phase of global culture
is the growing disjuncture between these flows, meaning that 'this new set of
global disjunctures is not a simple one-way street in which the terms of global
cultural politics are set wholly by ... the vicissitudes of international flows of
technology, labor and finance, demanding only a modest modification of
existing neo-Marxist models of uneven development and state formation'
(Appadurai, 1990, p. 306). In his later work hloder~titya t Large: Gtltlrral
Dirrrensiotzs of Globalizatiorz (Appadurai, 1996), Appadurai developed a
more focused account of the cultural elements of global communication and
culture, proposing that the central elements which make the current era of
globalization a culturally distinctive one are the globalization of electronic
media and mass migration.
The emphasis upon mass migration and the lived experience of diasporic
communities in multicultural societies allows Appadurai to construct a definition
of culture that is based around (i) sitzrated differerrce, or difference in
relation to something local, embodied and significant, that (ii) can constitute
the basis for a group identity, that (iii) can be mobilized as an articulation of
that group identity in other arenas. What follows from such a definition is
that cultures constituted as group identities based upon situated difference can
engage in cultural politics, or 'the conscious mobilization of cultural differences
in the service of a larger national or transnational politics' (Appadurai,
1996, p. 15). Global media flows insert themselves opportunistically into 'this
fertile ground of deterritorialization, in which money, comn~odities and
persons are involved in ceaselessly chasing &ch other around the world'
(Appadurai, 1990, p. 303). Appadurai's work has sought to open up spaces
from which 'globalization from below' can be understood and, with this,
opportunities for the 'subaltern' to 'speak' about the multiplicities of globalization
and its cultural impacts, thereby giving greater recognition to the work
being undertaken 'from below' by activists around the world on how to renegotiate
the terms of entry of these globalizing flows in order to achieve more
empowering and democratic outcomes. By contrast, Appadurai argues that
speculative theorizing which occurs independently of an understanding of
Supplied by The British Library - "The world's knowledge" I
Theories of Global Media 43
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these local struggles ignores the fact that 'the idea of an international civil
society will have no future outside of these efforts to globalize from below ...
in the study of these forms lies an obligation to academic research that, if
honoured, might make its deliberations more consequential for the poorer 80
per cent of the world ... who are socially and fiscally at risk' (Appadurai,
2003, p. 3).
Institutionalism, Media Corporations and Public Policy
One criticism which can be made of both the critical political economy and
cultural studies perspectives is that they have often worked with a fairly rudimentary
analysis of the internal dynamics of ~nedia organi
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