CONSIDERATIONS FOR MARKETING MANAGEMENT [4]
论文作者:匿名论文属性:短文 essay登出时间:2009-06-07编辑:刘宝玲点击率:12365
论文字数:5000论文编号:org200906071540257580语种:英语 English地区:中国价格:免费论文
关键词:CONSIDERATIONSMARKETINGMANAGEMENTliteratureDEPARTMENTSFUNCTIONS
ional learning (e.g., Dodgson 1993; Inkpen and Crossan 1995; Levinson and Asahi 1995).
Knowledge can be characterized as either explicit or tacit. Explicit knowledge comes from a rationalization of information about "facts" captured in discrete or "digital" forms and codified in formula, designs, and reports (Bolisani and Scarso 2000; Nonaka 1994; Nonaka, Takeuchi, and Umemoto 19%). Explicit knowledge is relatively easy to transfer through information technology mechanisms (Nonaka 1994). Tacit knowledge has a personalized quality and consists of internalized working models, including schemata, paradigms, beliefs, and viewpoints, that provide perspectives for how to relate to various situations encountered in the world. This composition makes tacit knowledge harder to formalize and communicate through information technology mechanisms, contrasting explicit knowledge, and the way in which tacit knowledge is created depends on a continuous activity directly connecting with ideas, perceptions, and experience. Communication between individuals may be seen as an analogue process that aims to share and create tacit knowledge through mutual understanding, but this understanding requires a parallel processing of the complexities of current issues (Bolisani and Scarso 2000; Nonaka 1994; Nonaka, Takeuchi, and Umemoto 19%), akin to double-loop learning (e.g., Slater and Narver 1995).
Many argue that the best use of explicit knowledge for decision making requires the introduction of a tacit component. Without this introduction, the codification process can never be complete (Cowan and Foray 1997; Nonaka 1994; Nonaka, Takeuchi, and Umemoto 1996). The creation and transfer of any kind of knowledge therefore requires that the involved actors are able to interpret all the implicit and explicit meanings of exchanged information, which is only fully accomplished by combining tacit and explicit knowledge during the creation and transfer process. To address this issue, Nonaka (1994) and Nonaka, Takeuchi, and Umemoto (19%) identified four different patterns of interaction between explicit and tacit knowledge to create new knowledge, suggesting that maximum knowledge creation only occurs when all four knowledge creation processes are occurring within an organization. These four knowledge creation processes are combination, externalization, internalization, and socialization.
Combination occurs when explicit knowledge from one individual is merged with explicit knowledge from another individual. This can occur through the sorting, adding, or categorizing of existing explicit knowledge. Computer systems provide excellent mechanisms for combination.
Externalization is the expression and translation of tacit knowledge into generic forms that can easily be understood by others.For this to happen, an intimate understanding of the target mental model for the externalized knowledge is needed. In practice, externalization requires two steps: the conversion of tacit knowledge into articulated forms understood by the individual and the conversion of that individual-level explicit knowledge into forms that can be easily understood by others (Nonaka and Konno 1998). The second step requires that the individual articulating the explicit knowledge have a good enough understanding of the mental models of the other individuals to understand how to articulate the knowledge in a way that others will easily understand. As such, socialization is a necessary precursor of exter
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